Understanding Meat

Meats

Composition, structures and basic quality factors

Composition 

Muscle tissue consists of three major components: water, protein, and fat

Water

Water is about 75 percent of muscle tissue. With such a high percentage of water, you can see why shrinkage can be a big problem in cooking meat. Too much moisture loss means dry meat, loss of weight, and loss of profit.

Proteins

Protein is an important nutrient and the most abundant solid material in meat. About 20 percent of muscle tissue is protein. As we learned in Chapter 4, protein coagulates when it is heated. This means it becomes firmer and loses moisture. Coagulation is related to doneness. When protein has coagulated to the desired degree, the meat is said to be “done.” Doneness is discussed later in this chapter.

After protein has coagulated, applying higher heat toughens i

Fat

Fat accounts for up to 5 percent of muscle tissue. Of course, more fat may surround the muscles. A beef carcass can be as much as 30 percent fat. Because of health and dietary concerns, many meat animals are being bred and raised with a lower fat content than in past years. Nevertheless, a certain amount of fat is desirable for three reasons:

1.     Juiciness.

Marbling is fat deposited within the muscle tissue. The juiciness we enjoy in well marbled beef is due more to fat than to moisture.

Surface fat protects the meat especially roasts from drying out during cooking as well as in storage. Adding surface fats where they are lacking is called barding.

2.     Tenderness.

Marbling separates muscle fibers, making them easier to chew.

3.     Flavor.

Fat is perhaps the main source of flavor in meat. A well-marbled Prime (top grade) steak tastes “beefier” than the same cut of a lower grade.

Carbohydrate

Meat contains a very small amount of carbohydrate. From the standpoint of nutrition, its quantity is so small that it is insignificant. It is important, however, because it plays a necessary part in the complex reaction, called the Maillard reaction (see p. 65), that takes place when meats are browned by roasting, broiling, or sautéing. Without these carbohydrates, the desirable flavor and appearance of browned meats would not be achieved.

Structure

Muscle Fibers

Lean meat is composed of long, thin muscle fibers bound together in bundles. These determine the texture or grain of a piece of meat. Fine-grained meat is composed of small fibers bound in small bundles. Coarse-textured meat has large fibers. Feel the cut surface of a tenderloin steak, and compare its smooth texture to the rough cut surface of brisket or bottom round.

Connective Tissue

Muscle fibers are bound together in a network of proteins called connective tissue. Each muscle fiber also is covered in a sheath of connective tissue. It is important for the cook to understand connective tissue for one basic reason:

Connective tissue is tough. To cook meats successfully, you should know

·         Which meats are high in connective tissue and which are low.

·         What are the best ways to make tough meats tender.

1)     Meats are highest in connective tissue if

§ They come from muscles that are more exercised. Muscles in the legs, for example, have more connective tissue than muscles in the back.

§  They come from older animals. Veal is more tender than meat from a young steer, which, in turn, is more tender than meat from an old bull or cow. (Young animals have connective tissue, too, but it becomes harder to break down as the animal ages.)

2)     Meats high in connective tissue can be made more tender by using proper cooking techniques. There are two kinds of connective tissue: collagen, which is white in color, and elastin, which is yellow.

§  Collagen.

Long, slow cooking in the presence of moisture breaks down or dissolves collagen by turning it into gelatin and water. Of course, muscle tissue is about 75 percent water, so moisture is always present when meats are cooked. Except for very large roasts, however, long cooking by a dry-heat method has the danger of evaporating too much moisture and drying out the meat. Therefore, moist-heat cooking methods at low temperatures are most effective for turning a meat high in connective tissue into a tender, juicy finished product. Other factors also help tenderize collagen:

Acid helps dissolve collagen. Marinating meat in an acid mixture, or adding an acid such as tomato or wine to the cooking liquid, helps tenderize it.

Enzymes are naturally present in meats. They break down some connective tissue and other proteins as meat ages (see “Aging,” pp. 278–280). These enzymes are inactive at freezing temperatures, slow-acting under refrigeration, active at room temperature, and destroyed by heat above 140°F (60°C).

Tenderizers are enzymes such as papain (extracted from papaya) that are added to meats by the cook or injected into the animal before slaughter. Exercise care when using enzyme tenderizers. Too long an exposure at room temperature can make the meat undesirably mushy.

§  Elastin.

Older animals have a higher proportion of elastin than younger animals.

Elastin is not broken down in cooking. Tenderizing can be accomplished only by removing the elastin (cutting away any tendons) and by mechanically breaking up the fibers, as in Pounding and cubing (cubed steaks) Grinding (hamburger) Slicing the cooked meat very thin against the grain (as in London broil)

Inspection & Grading

Cooks and food service operators in the United States are assisted in their evaluation of meats by a federal inspection and grading system.

Inspection

1.     Inspection is a guarantee of wholesomeness, not of quality or tenderness. It means the animal was not diseased and the meat is clean and fit for human consumption.

2.     That the meat passed inspection is indicated by a round stamp (Figure 10.1).

3.     Inspection is required by U.S. federal law. All meat must be inspected

Quality Grading

1.     Grading is a quality designation.

2.     The grade is indicated by a shield stamp (Figure 10.2).

3.     Grading is not required by U.S. law. (Some packers use a private grading system and give different brand names to different grades. Reliability of private grades depends on the integrity of the packer.)

Quality grading is based on the texture, firmness, and color of the lean meat, the age or maturity of the animal, and the marbling (the fat within the lean).

All these factors must be considered together. For example, old, tough meat can still have marbling, but it would rate a low grade because of the other factors. Table 10.1 summarizes USDA meat grades.

Yield Grading

In addition to quality grading, beef and lamb are graded according to how much usable meat in proportion to fat they have. This is called yield grading. The meatiest grade is Yield Grade 1.

Poorest yield (much exterior fat) is Yield Grade 5. Pork is yield-graded from 1 to 4, but most pork is sold already cut and trimmed. Veal, which has little fat, is not yield-graded.

Aging 

Green Meat

Soon after slaughter, an animal’s muscles stiffen due to chemical changes in the flesh. This stiffness, called rigor mortis, gradually disappears. Softening takes three to four days for beef, less time for smaller carcasses like veal, lamb, and pork. This softening is caused by enzymes in the flesh.

Green meat is meat that has not had enough time to soften. It is tough and relatively flavorless. Because it takes several days for meats to reach the kitchen from the slaughterhouse, green meat is seldom a problem with commercially available meats, except when meat is frozen while still green. The problem is sometimes encountered with game killed for home consumption, if the hunter cuts and freezes the meat when it is too fresh

Aged Meat

Enzyme action continues in muscle tissue even after meat is no longer green. This tenderizes the flesh even more and develops more flavor. Holding meats in coolers under controlled conditions to provide time for this natural tenderizing is called aging. Beef and lamb can be aged because high-quality carcasses have enough fat cover to protect them from bacteria and from drying. Veal has no fat cover, so it is not aged. Pork does not require aging.

Aging does not mean just storing meat in the refrigerator. There is a difference between aged meat and old meat. Conditions must be carefully controlled so the meat becomes naturally tender without spoiling. There are two primary methods used for aging.

1.     Wet aging.
      

Today, most wholesale meat carcasses are broken down into smaller cuts and enclosed in plastic vacuum packs. These packs are usually known by the trade name Cryovac®. The air- and moistureproof packaging protects the meat from bacteria and mold, and it prevents weight loss due to drying. (However, Cryovac-aged meats often lose more weight in cooking than do dry-aged meats.) Vacuum-pack meats must be refrigerated.

2.     Dry aging.
     
    Dry aging is the process of storing meats, usually large cuts, under carefully controlled conditions. The meat is not packaged or wrapped, and it is exposed to air on all sides.

Temperature, humidity, and air circulation are precisely controlled to prevent spoilage.

Dry-aged meat can lose up to 20 percent of its weight through moisture loss, depending on the size of the cut and how long it is aged. Consequently, dry aging is more expensive process than wet aging. Dry-aged meats are usually available from specialty purveyors only, and at a higher price than wet-aged meats. Many customers are willing to pay a premium for fine dry-aged steaks because they are considered the best for flavor and texture.

Aging increases tenderness and flavor. An off taste is not characteristic of aged meat. If a meat smells or tastes spoiled, it probably is. Sometimes meats in vacuum packs have a musty aroma when first opened, but this disappears quickly.

Aging costs money. Storage costs, weight loss due to drying, and heavier trimming due to dried and discolored surfaces all add to the price of aged meat (although wet aging costs less than dry aging). As a meat purchaser, you must decide how much quality is worth how much cost for your particular establishment.

Understanding the basic cuts

The following discussion of meat cuts focuses on the four primary meat categories in the wholesale and retail markets: beef, lamb, veal, and pork. Keep in mind, however, that game animals, discussed later in the chapter, have the same bone and muscle structure and are generally divided into the same or similar cuts as nongame animals.

Meat cuts are based on two factors:

1.     The muscle and bone structure of the meat.

2.     Uses of and appropriate cooking methods for various parts of the animal.

Food-service suppliers in the United States may follow a set of specifications called Institution Meat Purchase Specifications (IMPS). (IMPS, including numbers and names of cuts, are the same as the North American Meat Processors Association, or NAMP, specifications.) All cuts are described in detail and listed by number. This simplifies purchasing, as you can order by number exactly the cut you want

Available Forms : carcasses, partial carcasses, primals and fabricated cuts.

Beef, lamb, veal, and pork may be purchased in some or all of these forms. Mutton and goat are also given NAMP classification numbers, as indicated in Table 10.2, but they have minimal importance in North American food service and are not covered here.

Carcasses
 

The carcass is the whole animal, minus the entrails, head, feet, and hide (except pork, from which only the entrails and head are removed). Whole carcasses are rarely purchased by food service operators because of the skill and labor required in cutting and because of the problem of total utilization.

Sides, Quarters, Foresaddles, Hindsaddles

These represent the first step in breaking down a carcass.

Again, these larger cuts are no longer frequently used in food service. Fewer establishments cut their own meats.

1.     Beef is split first through the backbone into sides. Sides are divided between the 12th and 13th ribs into forequarter and hindquarter.

2.     Veal and lamb are not split into sides but are divided in half into foresaddle and hind saddle. For veal, the cut is made between the 11th and 12th ribs. Lamb, on the other hand, is split either between the 12th and 13th rib or after the 13th rib, depending on the cutting style. For more information, see the charts on pages 286–287

3.     Pork carcasses are not divided in this way. They are cut directly into primal cuts (see below).

Primal or Wholesale Cuts

These are the primary divisions of quarters, foresaddles, hindsaddles, and carcasses. These cuts, called primal cuts, are still used, to some extent, in food service, because they :

1.     Are small enough to be manageable in many food-service kitchens.

2.     Are still large enough to allow a variety of cuts for different uses or needs.

3.     Are easier to utilize completely than quarters or halves.

Each primal may be fabricated, or cut up and trimmed, in several ways. Primal cuts are always the starting point for smaller cuts. For this reason, it will benefit you to be able to identify each one. Study the charts and photos in Figures 10.3 through 10.6. (Please note the lamb chart in Figure 10.5 shows the traditional cuts, not the alternative cuts mentioned in the preceding section.) Learn the names of the primals, their location on the carcass, and the most important cuts that come from each. Then, whenever you work with a piece of meat, try to identify it exactly and match it with its primal cut.

Fabricated Cuts

Primal cuts are fabricated into smaller cuts for roasts, steaks, chops, cutlets, stewing meat, ground meat, and so forth, according to individual customer requirements and, if applicable, IMPS/NAMP specifications.

The amount of trim and exact specifications can have many variations. For example, a beef primal rib can be trimmed and prepared for roasting at least nine ways.

Portion-controlled cuts are ready-to-cook meats cut according to customer’s specifications. Steaks and chops are ordered either by weight per steak or by thickness. Portion controlled cuts require the least work for the cook of all meat cuts. They are also the most expensive per pound of all categories of cuts.

Bone Structure

Knowing the bone structure of meat animals is essential for:

1.     Identifying meat cuts.

The distinctive shapes of the bones are often the best clue to the identification of a cut. Note how the shapes of the bones in the photographs in Figures 10.3 through 10.6 help your recognition.

2.     Boning and cutting meats.

Bones are often surrounded by flesh. You need to know where they are even if you can’t see them.

3.     Carving cooked meats. Same reason as number 2.

Beef primal cuts and fabricated cuts
Primal	Major bones	Common fabricated cuts	Primary cooking method
Forequarter
Chuck (square cut)	Ribs 1–5 Blade bone Backbone (including chine and feather bones) Neck bones Arm bone	Shoulder clod Triangle Boneless inside chuck Chuck tender Chuck short ribs Cubed steaks Stew meat Ground chuck	Moist heat
Brisket	Rib bones Rib cartilage Breastbone	Boneless brisket and corned beef brisket Ground beef	Moist heat
Shank	Shankbone	Stew meat Ground beef	Moist heat
Rib	Ribs 6–12 Backbone (chine and feather bones)	Rib roasts (prime rib) Rib steaks Short ribs	Dry heat Moist heat
Short plate	Rib bones Tip of breastbone Rib cartilage	Short ribs Stew meat Ground beef	Moist heat
Hindquarter (Full loin)		Full tenderloin (to have tenderloin in one piece, it must be stripped out of loin before loin is split into short loin and sirloin)	Dry heat
Short loin	Rib 13 Backbone (chine, feather bones, finger bones; see Note 1	Club steaks T-bone steaks Porterhouse steaks Strip loin Strip loin steaks Short tenderloin	Dry heat
Sirloin	Backbone Hip bone (part of pelvis)	Top sirloin butt Bottom sirloin butt Butt tenderloin	Dry heat
Flank	Tip of rib 13	Flank steak Ground beef	Moist heat (exception: flank steak cooked as London broil)
Round	Round (leg) bone Aitch bone (part of pelvis) Shankbone Tailbone	Knuckle (sirloin tip) Inside (top) round Outside (bottom) round Eye of round (part of outside round) Rump Hind shank	Moist heat and dry heat
Foresaddle
Shoulder	Ribs 1–4 or 1–5 (see Note 2) Arm Blade Backbone (chine and feather bones) Neck bones	Shoulder roasts Shoulder chops Stew meat Ground lamb	Moist heat and dry heat
Breast and shank	Rib bones Rib cartilage Breastbone Shankbone	Riblets Breast Stew meat Ground lamb	Moist heat
Hotel rack	Ribs 5–12 or 6–13 (see Note 2) Backbone	Rib roasts (rack) Crown roast Ribs, chops	Dry heat
Hindsaddle
Loin (with or without flank) Leg	Rib 13 (optional; see Note 2) Backbone (chine, feather bones, finger bones) Backbone Tailbone Pelvis Round bone Hindshank	Loin roast Loin chops Leg roast Leg chops Sirloin chops Shank	Dry heat Dry heat Moist heat
Foresaddle
Shoulder (square cut)	Ribs 1–4 or 1–5 (see Note 3) Blade bone Backbone (chine and feather bones) Neck bones Arm bone	Shoulder roasts Shoulder chops Shoulder clod steaks Cubed steaks Stew meat Ground veal	Moist heat and dry heat
Breast	Rib bones Rib cartilage Breastbone	Boneless breast Cubed steaks Ground veal	Moist heat
Shank	Shankbone	Shank cross-cut (osso buco)	Moist heat
Hotel rack	Ribs 5–11 or 6–11 (see Note 3) Backbone (chine and feather bones)	Rib roast Rib chops	Dry heat and moist heat
Hindsaddle
Loin (with or without flank) Leg	Ribs 12 and 13 Backbone (chine, feather bones, finger bones) Backbone Tailbone Pelvis (hip bone, aitch bone) Round bone Hindshank	Saddle (loin roast) Loin chops Leg roast Scaloppine or cutlets Shank cross-cut (osso buco)	Dry heat and moist heat Dry heat Moist heat
Shoulder picnic	Shoulder (arm) bone Shankbone	Fresh and smoked picnic Hocks Primary Cooking Methods Ground pork Sausage meat	Moist heat
Boston butt	Blade bone (rib bones, back and neck bones are removed)	Butt steaks Shoulder roasts Daisy (smoked) Ground pork Sausage meat	Dry heat and moist heat
Loin	Rib bones (see Note 4) Backbone (chine, feather bones, finger bones) Hip bone	Loin roast Loin and rib chops Boneless loin Country-style ribs Canadian-style bacon (smoked)	Dry heat and moist heat
Ham	Aitch bone Leg bone Hindshank bone	Fresh ham Smoked ham Ham steaks	Dry heat and moist heat
Belly	None	Bacon	Dry heat and moist heat
Spare ribs	Rib bones Breastbone	Spareribs	Moist heat
Fatback and clear plate	None	Fresh and salt fatback Salt pork Lard	(Used as cooking fats)
Jowl	Jowl	Jowl bacon	Moist heat
Feet			Moist heat

Note: Square-cut chuck, brisket, and shank, in one piece, are called cross-cut chuck.

Note: Hotel rack plus connecting portions of breast is called a bracelet.

Note: Hotel rack plus connecting portions of breast is called a bracelet.

Note: Hotel rack and loin attached are called veal back; used mostly for chops.

Pork has more than 13 ribs (unlike beef, lamb, and veal) due to special breeding to develop long loins

Selecting meats for your operations

Deciding Which Forms to Purchase

Whether you buy whole carcasses, fabricated cuts, or anything in between depends on four

factors:

1.      How much meat-cutting skill you or your staff has.

2.      How much work and storage space you have.

3.      Whether or not you can use all cuts and lean trim on your menu.

4.      Which form gives you the best cost per portion after figuring in labor costs.

Meat purveyors can usually cut meat more economically than food-service operators can because they deal in large volume. Carcasses or primal cuts cost less per pound than fabricated cuts, but they have more waste (fat and bone) and require more labor (which costs money). However, some operators still do some of their own cutting, depending on how they answer the four questions above. They feel cutting their own meat gives them greater control over quality.

Some compromises are available. If you want the quality of freshly cut steaks, for example, you might buy boneless strip loins and cut your own steaks to order. You need not buy primal loins.

Specifications

When buying meat, you must indicate the following specifications:

1.      Item name.

Include IMPS/NAMPS number, if applicable.

Example: 173 Beef Short Loin, Regular

2.      Grade.

Example: U.S. Choice

(You may also want to specify division of grade, such as the upper half or lower half of U.S. Choice.)

3.      Weight range for roasts and large cuts.

Portion weight or thickness (not both) for steaks and chops.

4.      State of refrigeration.

Chilled or frozen.

5.      Fat limitations, or average thickness of surface fat.

Example: 3⁄4 inch average, 1 inch maximum.

(This does not apply to veal.)

Meat purchasers may also have to choose whether or not to purchase irradiated meat.

Irradiation is the process of exposing foods to radiation in order to kill bacteria, parasites, and other potentially harmful organisms. Irradiation does not harm the meat, make it radioactive, or change its structure, flavor, or nutritional value. Foods treated with radiation must be labeled as such. In the United States, for example, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requires that irradiated foods include labeling with either the statement “treated with radiation” or “treated by irradiation” and the international symbol for irradiation, the radura

Some operators refuse to purchase irradiated foods because they or their customers have concerns about their health effects. The procedure has generated much controversy for other reasons as well. For example, some see the availability of the process as an excuse to avoid normal sanitation procedures. Nevertheless, there is so far no evidence that these foods are harmful for human beings to eat.

Fabricating Meat

Even though few operations today purchase large cuts, such as primals, and break them down in-house, you still need to know a number of trimming and fabricating techniques to finish or modify the fabricated cuts you purchase. The illustrations in this section demonstrate important procedures. These procedures are used for recipes in Chapter 11. One term you will encounter often when trimming meat is silverskin, a thin layer or membrane of connective tissue that often covers the surface of a muscle. For braised meats, it is not always necessary to remove silverskin, unless it is very heavy, because slow cooking breaks down the collagen of the tissue. However, for roasts, sautés, and grills of tender meats, it should be removed for two reasons: (1) It is tough and would be unpleasantly chewy in the cooked product; (2) It usually shrinks when cooked, making the meat deform or curl.

To remove silverskin:

1.      Hold the blade of the knife parallel to the silverskin and perpendicular to the grain of the meat.

2.      Insert the tip of the blade just under the silverskin.

3.      Hold the knife so the edge of the blade angles slightly upward. Carefully slip the blade under the silverskin in the direction of the grain of the meat while holding the meat steady with your other hand. (Angling the blade upward keeps it from digging into the meat.)

4.      Repeat until all silverskin is removed.

Cooking and Handling Meat

Tenderness and Apropriate Cooking Method

The heat of cooking affects tenderness in two ways:

1.     It tenderizes connective tissue if moisture is present and cooking is slow.

2.     It toughens protein. Even meats low in connective tissue can be tough and dry if cooked at excessively high heats for too long

The Principles of Low-Heat Cooking

1.     High heat toughens and shrinks protein and results in excessive moisture loss. Therefore, low-heat cooking should be the general practice for most meat cooking methods.

2.     Broiling seems to be a contradiction to this rule. The reason carefully broiled meat stays tender is that it is done quickly. It takes time for the heat to be conducted to the interior of the meat, so the inside never gets very hot. Meat broiled to the point of being well done, however, is likely to be dry.

3.     Roasts cooked at low temperatures have better yields than those roasted at high heat that is, they shrink less and lose less moisture.

4.     Because both liquid and steam are better conductors of heat than air, moist heat penetrates meat quickly. Therefore, to avoid overcooking, meat should be simmered, never boiled.

Breaking Down Connective Tissue

Remember that connective tissue is highest in muscles that are frequently exercised and in mature animals.

Look again at the primary cooking methods (column 4) in the table of meat cuts (p. 285).

You should detect a pattern of tender cuts, cooked primarily by dry heat; slightly less tender cuts, cooked sometimes by dry and sometimes by moist heat; and least tender cuts, cooked almost always by moist heat.

The concept of moist-heat cooking needs further explanation as it applies to breaking down connective tissue in meat. The usual explanation of the effect of moist heat on connective tissue is that heat breaks down collagen in the presence of moisture. But meat is about 75 percent water, so moisture is always present. Collagen breaks down because of long, slow cooking, no matter what cooking method is used.

To summarize: Long, slow cooking tenderizes collagen. Moist-heat methods are most

suitable for long, slow cooking. Dry-heat methods usually are short, quick cooking methods,

suitable only for tender cuts, except when larger items are roasted for a relatively long time.

The following list summarizes the cooking characteristics of the major cuts.

1.     Rib and loin cuts.

Always the most tender cuts, used mostly for roasts, steaks, and chops.

Beef and lamb. Because these meats are often eaten rare or medium done, the rib and loin are used almost exclusively for roasting, broiling, and grilling.

Veal and pork. Pork is generally eaten well done, and veal is most often eaten well done, although many people prefer it slightly pink in the center. Therefore, these meats are occasionally braised, not to develop tenderness but to help preserve juices. Veal chops, which are very low in fat, may be broiled if great care is taken not to overcook them and dry them out. A safer approach is to use a method with fat, such as sautéing or pan frying, or to use moist heat

2.     Leg or round.

Beef. The cuts of the round are less tender and are used mostly for braising.

Top grades, such as U.S. Prime, U.S. Choice, Canada Prime, and Canada AAA, can also be roasted. The roasts are so large that, roasted at low temperatures for a long time, the beef ’s own moisture helps dissolve collagen. Inside round (top round) is favored for roasts because of its size and relative tenderness.

Beef round is very lean. It is best roasted rare. Lack of fat makes well-done round tasty dry

Veal, lamb, and pork. These meats are from young animals and therefore tender enough to roast.

Legs make excellent roasts because large muscles with few seams and uniform grain allow easy slicing and attractive portions.

Figure 10.19 shows the muscle structure of the round in cross section. A center-cut steak from a whole round of beef, lamb, veal, or pork has this same structure.

3.     Chuck or shoulder.

Beef. Beef chuck is a tougher cut that is usually braised.

Although chuck is not the ideal choice for braising if uniform slices are desired, it makes braised dishes of excellent eating quality. Its connective tissue is easilyround bone broken down by moist cooking, yielding moist, tender meat with abundant gelatin content.

Veal, lamb, and pork. These are most often braised but are young enough to be roasted or cut into chops for broiling.

Shoulder roasts are not the most desirable because they consist of many small muscles running in several directions. Therefore, they do not produce attractive, solid slices.

4.     Shanks, breast, brisket, and flank.

These are the least tender cuts, even on young animals, and are almost always cooked by moist heat.

Shanks are desirable for braising and simmering because their high collagen content is converted into gelatin that gives body to braising liquids and good eating quality to the meat.

Beef flank steaks can be broiled (as London broil) if they are cooked rare and cut across the grain into thin slices. This cuts the connective tissue into chewable pieces

(see mechanical tenderization, p. 278).

5.     Ground meat, cubed steaks, and stew meat.

These can come from any primal cut. They are usually made from trimmings, although whole chucks are sometimes ground into chopped meat. Ground meat and cubed steaks can be cooked by dry or moist heat because they are mechanically tenderized. Stew meat is, of course, cooked by moist heat

Other Factors Influencing Choice of Cooking Methods

1.     Fat content.

Meats high in fat, such as Prime beef or lamb, are generally cooked without added fat, such as by roasting or broiling.

Meats low in fat, such as veal, are often cooked with added fat to prevent dryness.

Sautéing, pan-frying, or braising is generally preferable to broiling for veal chops that are cooked well done.

Fat can be added to lean meats in two ways:

§  Barding. Tying slices of fat, such as pork fatback, over meats with no natural fat cover to protect them while roasting.

§  Larding. Inserting strips of fat with a larding needle into meats low in marbling.

These two techniques were developed in Europe when meats were much leaner and not as tender. They are not often used with today’s tender, grain-fed meats. These techniques are useful, however, when cooking lean game, such as venison.

2.     Developing tenderness is not the only goal of cooking.

Other goals are

§  Developing flavor.

§  Preventing excessive shrinkage and nutrient loss.

§  Developing appearance.

You must often compromise to get a balanced result. For example, preliminary browning of a roast at high heat increases shrinkage but may be desirable for some roasts to develop flavor and appearance.

Searing and “Sealing”

SEARING

Searing meats at high heat creates desirable flavor and color by browning the surfaces. It was long believed that searing the surface of meat “seals the pores,” keeping in juices.

This does not actually happen. Meat does not have pores but rather an open network of fibers. Think of the surface of a steak as resembling the cut end of a thick rope. There are no pores to seal. It is true that heavy browning creates a kind of crust on the surface of the meat, but this crust is no more waterproof than an unbrowned surface.

You can easily demonstrate this. Place a steak or chop on a hot griddle or grill and sear it well. Turn it over and continue cooking. As it cooks, you will see meat juices driven up through the seared top surface. You will continue to hear a sizzling sound, which is the sound of moisture escaping from the meat and quickly vaporizing. Remove the finished steak from the grill and let it set on a plate for a few minutes, and you will see a small pool of juices collect. Every one who has cooked a steak has seen this demonstration that searing doesn’t seal.

Roasts cooked from the start at a low temperature retain more juices than roasts that are seared at high heat first.

Steaks, chops, and cutlets cooked quickly at high heat retain more moisture at first because the intense heat instantly evaporates the juices from the surface of the meat and forces internal juices further into the meat. This permits browning, because moisture creates steam and inhibits browning. However, overcooked steaks are dry whether or not they were seared.

BLANCHING AND “SEALING”

Dropping meat into boiling water doesn’t seal the pores either. What actually happens is this:

Many proteins dissolve in cold water. When heated, these proteins coagulate and become froth or scum on the surface of the water. When meat is placed into boiling water, some of the protein coagulates inside that meat, and not as much is carried out of the meat with the

lost moisture. Prolonged cooking shrinks meat as much if started in boiling water as if started in cold water.

Cooking Frozen Meats

Some sources recommend cooking some meats from the frozen state, without thawing, in

order to eliminate drip loss that occurs during defrosting. However, it is usually better to thaw

before cooking because of the following reasons:

1.     Frozen meats lose no moisture from defrosting but lose more during cooking. The total loss is about the same as for thawed meats. Besides, the perception of juiciness depends as much or more on fat content than on moisture content.

2.     Cooking frozen meats complicates the cooking process and requires adjustments in procedure. It is possible for roasts to be cooked on the outside but still frozen in the center. Frozen steaks, too, are more difficult to cook evenly than thawed steaks.

Thawed meats, on the other hand, are handled like fresh meats.

3.     Cooking frozen meats requires extra energy, and energy is expensive. A hard frozen roast may take 3 times as long to cook as a thawed roast.

Doneness

Definitions

The meaning of the term doneness depends on whether the cooking method uses dry heat or

moist heat.

1.     Dry heat.

Meat is “done” when the proteins have reached the desired degree of coagulation (see p. 65), as indicated by internal temperature.

2.     Moist heat.

Meat is “done” when connective tissues have broken down enough for the meat to be palatable. With a few exceptions, meat cooked by moist heat is always well done.

Dry-Heat Cooking

The object of dry-heat cooking is to achieve the desired degree of doneness (protein coagulation)

while preserving natural tenderness and juiciness.

DEGREE OF DONENESS

As meat cooks, its pigments change color. These color changes indicate degrees of doneness.

Red meat (beef and lamb) changes from red to pink to gray or gray-brown.

§  Rare: browned surface; thin layer of cooked (gray) meat; red interior

§  Medium: thicker layer of gray; pink interior

§  Well done: gray throughout

(Of course, there are stages in between.)

White meat (veal and pork) changes from pink or gray-pink to white or off-white. It is

generally cooked well done, although many cuts of veal may be considered done when

still slightly pink in the center.

As explained on page 23, trichinosis is a disease caused by a parasite that lives in the muscle tissue of hogs and some wild animals. In countries in which this disease is a problem, pork must be cooked long enough to eliminate this danger. This parasite is killed at 137°F (58°C), but, to be safe, pork should be cooked to at least 150° to 155°F (66° to 68°C).

At this stage, pork is only medium to medium-well done. Some people are happy to eat pork that is still pink in the center, but most people prefer it to be cooked slightly more than this.

On the other hand, it is not necessary to cook pork to 185°F (85°C), as older guidelines said. At this temperature, pork is overcooked and dry. For diners who avoid any trace of pink in pork, perhaps the best doneness range is 160° to 170°F (71° to 77°C).

TESTING DONENESS

Determining doneness is one of the most difficult and critical aspects of meat cooking. Anyone

can put a steak on the grill or a roast in the oven. But it takes experience and skill to take it off the fire at the right time.

Color change cannot be used to test doneness because it would be necessary to cut the meat. Piercing the meat and examining the color of the juices is not a reliable method.

INTERNAL TEMPERATURES

Testing the interior of meat with a meat thermometer is the most accurate method of testing doneness. Thermometers are of two types: standard, which are inserted before roasting and left in the roast; and instant-read, which are inserted at any time, read as soon as the needle stops moving, and pulled out. Whatever thermometer you use, make sure it is clean and sanitary before inserting it in the meat

The tip of the thermometer should be inserted into the center of the thickest part of the flesh, not touching fat or bone. Table 10.3 gives internal temperatures of meats at various degrees of doneness.

In general, regional traditions of eating well-done or overcooked meats are decreasing, and more people are eating meat cooked rare. For decades, meats cooked to an internal temperature of 140°F (60°C) were called rare, but by today’s standards, this is more like medium.

Current preferences are reflected in the temperatures given in Table 10.3.

It should be stated that the USDA and other agencies caution that meats may contain harmful bacteria and parasites. Although studies are still being done, these agencies suggest meats be cooked to at least 145°F (63°C) in order to be completely safe. The USDA requires that beef precooked for food service sale (such as precooked roast beef for sandwiches) be heated to an internal temperature of at least 145°F (63°C) when it is processed.

You may recall from Chapter 2 that cooking foods to lower temperatures can make them safe. Note, however, that according to Table 2.5 on page 30, the lower the final internal temperature, the longer the product must be held at that temperature. Thus, for example, a roast may be brought to an internal

temperature of only 130°F (54°C), but it can be considered safe only if it is held at that temperature at least 112 minutes.

Clearly, it is not possible to keep a rare steak at its final temperature for 112 minutes before serving it. According to safety standards, then, rare steaks are not considered safe. Those who prefer their steaks rare, however, are not likely to be swayed by this argument and will continue to request meat done to their liking. Each food-service operator must decide whether to please these customers or to follow food safety guidelines.

In any case, whether or not 145°F (63°C) is the lowest safe temperature for cooking most meats, it is not really accurate to call it rare.

CARRY OVER COOKING

Internal temperature continues to rise even after the meat is removed from the oven. This is because the outside of roasting meat is hotter than the inside. This heat continues to be conducted into the meat until the heat is equalized throughout the roast.

Carryover cooking can raise internal temperatures from 5°F (3°C) for small cuts to as much as 25°F (14°C) for very large roasts, such as a steamship round. The usual range is 10° to 15°F (6° to 8°C) for average roasts. Exact temperature change depends on the size of the cut and on the oven temperature.

Remove roasts from the oven when internal temperature is 10° to 15°F (6° to 8°C) below

the desired reading. Let the roast stand 15 to 30 minutes before slicing. For example, a beef rib roast cooked rare should be removed from the oven when the thermometer reads 115° to 120°F (46° to 49°C). Carryover cooking will bring the temperature to 130°F (54°C) after the roast has stood for 30 minutes

TOUCH

The small size of steaks and chops makes using a thermometer impractical. The cook must depend on his or her sense of touch. Meat gets firmer as it cooks. Pressing it lightly with the finger indicates its doneness. Press the center of the lean part, not the fat.

Rare. Feels soft, gives to pressure, though not as soft and jellylike as raw meat.

Medium. Feels moderately firm and resilient, springs back readily when pressed.

Well done. Feels firm, does not give to pressure.

TIME WEIGHT RATIO

Many charts give roasting times per pound of meat. However, these can be approximate only

and should be used in estimating and planning cooking times, not in determining doneness.

Many factors other than weight and oven temperature determine cooking time:

1.     Temperature of the meat before roasting.

2.     Amount of fat cover (fat acts as an insulator).

3.     Bones (bones conduct heat faster than flesh, so boneless roasts cook more slowly than bone in roasts of the same weight).

4.     Size, type, and contents of the oven.

5.     Number of times the oven door is opened.

6.     Shape of the cut (a flat or a long, thin cut cooks more quickly per pound than a round, compact cut).

You can see why roasting requires experience and judgment. To be really accurate and useful, a complete roasting chart that took all variables into consideration, including all meat cuts, sizes, oven temperatures, and so on, would be the size of a small book.

Point 6 above is a key point. It is the thickness of a cut, not its weight, that determines cooking time the time needed for the heat to penetrate to the center. Half a pork loin roasts in about the same time as a whole pork loin, even though it weighs half as much. The thickness is the same.

Perhaps the most useful roasting time charts are those you make yourself. When you regularly roast the same cuts in the same way with the same equipment and find they always take the same length of time, you may use those times as indicators of doneness. Many food service operators have developed charts based on their own practices, and the correct times are indicated on their individual recipe cards.

Moist-Heat Cooking

Meat cooked by moist heat is cooked well done and actually beyond well done. Doneness is indicated by tenderness, not by temperature.

Piercing with a meat fork is the usual test for doneness. When the prongs of the fork go in and slide out easily, the meat is done.

Low temperatures—no higher than simmering—are essential to avoid toughening protein in moist-cooked meats. Oven temperatures of 250° to 300°F (120° to 150°C) are usually sufficient to maintain a simmer.

Juiciness

Three main factors determine the juiciness—or, more accurately, the perception of juicinesss in cooked meat. Despite the myths about basting with stock and about searing meat to “seal in the juices,” the following are the only factors that have any significant effect on juiciness

§  Internal fat.

Fat makes meat taste juicy. This is why well-marbled meats taste juicier than lean meats. We understand the health effects of too much fat in the diet, but there is no getting around the fact that high fat content makes meat taste juicier. When lean meats are cooked, other measures (such as using sauces and, especially, avoiding over cooking) are used to increase palatability.

§  Gelatin.

This factor is most important in braised meats. Gelatin, converted from connective tissue, helps bind water molecules and hold them in the meat. Also, the texture of the gelatin improves the texture of the meat in the mouth. This is why braised beef shank tastes so much juicier than braised outside round

§  Protein coagulation.

As you know, as protein coagulates or is cooked, it breaks down and begins to lose water. The more it is cooked, the more it contracts and forces out moisture. No matter how much you try to sear to “seal in the juices,” this moisture will be lost. The only way to minimize the loss is to avoid overcooking

Storage of Meats

The quality of a finished meat product depends not only on proper selection and cooking of

the meat but also on its proper storage. Fresh meat is highly perishable. The high cost of meat

makes it essential to avoid spoilage.

Fresh Meats

1.     Check purchases on arrival to ensure the purchased meat is of good quality.

2.     Do not wrap tightly. Bacteria and mold thrive in moist, stagnant places. Air circulation inhibits their growth. Store meat loosely arranged on pans or racks to allow air circuation between pieces, but cover cut surfaces to prevent excessive drying.

3.     Do not open vacuum-packed meats until ready to use.

4.     Store at 32° to 36°F (0° to 2°C). Meat does not freeze until about 28°F (–2°C).

5.     Keep meats separated in the cooler (or, even better, in separate coolers) and on the worktable to avoid cross-contamination.

6.     Use as soon as possible. Fresh meats keep well only two to four days. Ground meats keep even less well because so much surface area is exposed to bacteria. Cured and smoked products may keep up to one week. For these reasons, frequent deliveries are better than long storage.

7.     Do not try to rescue meats that are going bad by freezing them. Freezing will not improve the quality of spoiling meat.

8.     Keep coolers clean.

FROZEN MEATS

1.     Wrap frozen meats well to prevent freezer burn.

2.     Store at 0°F (–18°C) or colder.

3.     Rotate stock—first in, first out. Frozen meats do not keep indefinitely. Recommended shelf life at 0°F (–18°C) for beef, veal, and lamb: 6 months; for pork: 4 months (pork fat turns rancid easily in the freezer).

4.     Defrost carefully. Tempering in the refrigerator is best. Defrosting at room temperature encourages bacterial growth.

5.     Do not refreeze thawed meats. Refreezing increases loss of quality.

6.     Keep freezers clean.

Terms for review
coagulation	grading	primal cuts
marbling	yield grade	fabricated (cuts)
connective tissue	green meat	portion-controlled cuts
collagen	Aging	butcher
elastin	Cryovac	fabricate
inspection	dry aging	carve

Question for discussion

1.     Many people assume that the leaner a meat is, the better it is. Do you agree? Explain. 2.     What is connective tissue? Why is it important for the cook to understand connective tissue? 3.     Flank steak (beef) is high in connective tissue, yet it is often broiled and served in thin slices as London broil. How is this possible? 4.     Why are portion-controlled meats so widely used in food service, even though their per-pound cost is higher? 5.     Can you explain why veal loin, a tender cut, is sometimes braised, while veal shoulder, a less tender cut, is sometimes roasted?

6.     Which of the following cuts are you more likely to braise? Which might you roast? Beef chuck, Corned beef, brisket, Lamb shanks, Veal rib, Beef strip loin, Beef rib, Lamb leg 7.     You wish to cook a roast rib of beef to a final internal temperature of 145°F (63°C). Why, then, would you remove the roast from the oven when the temperature on the meat thermometer reads 130°F (54°C)? 8.     Why are weight-time roasting charts inadequate for determining the doneness of roast meats?